How do scientists calculate and measure a stars mass, temperature, and elements?
They observe very closely using telescopes and also split the light into its constituent colours (or frequencies) using a device called a diffraction grating.
Color can be used to estimate temperature; light splitting into a spectrum provides much more detailed information about the elements' surface temperatures as well as identification of the elements present (each element absorbs at specific frequencies that result in distinct dark lines).
I believe that mass is more complex. It is estimated using absolute luminosity, which is the brightness at a standard distance, unless planets are orbiting, in which case the radius and orbital period can be used to calculate the central mass.
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Scientists use spectroscopy to measure a star's temperature, elements through spectroscopic examination of the star's light spectrum, and gravitational interactions within a star system to calculate and measure a star's mass.
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When evaluating a one-sided limit, you need to be careful when a quantity is approaching zero since its sign is different depending on which way it is approaching zero from. Let us look at some examples.
When evaluating a one-sided limit, you need to be careful when a quantity is approaching zero since its sign is different depending on which way it is approaching zero from. Let us look at some examples.
When evaluating a one-sided limit, you need to be careful when a quantity is approaching zero since its sign is different depending on which way it is approaching zero from. Let us look at some examples.
When evaluating a one-sided limit, you need to be careful when a quantity is approaching zero since its sign is different depending on which way it is approaching zero from. Let us look at some examples.

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